MALL - (M.MohamadiTabar)
'Mobile-assisted language learning' Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) describes an approach to language learning that is assisted or enhanced through the use of a handheld mobile device. MALL is a subset of both Mobile Learning (m-learning) and Computer-assisted language learning (CALL). MALL has evolved to support students’ language learning with the increased use of mobile technologies such as mobile phones (cellphones), MP3 and MP4 players, PDAs and devices such as the iPhone or iPad. With MALL, students are able to access language learning materials and to communicate with their teachers and peers at any time, anywhere. Mobile learning is undergoing rapid evolution. While early generations of mobile learning tended to propose activities that were carefully crafted by educators and technologists, learners are increasingly motivated by their personal learning needs, including those arising from greater mobility and frequent travel. At the same time, it is often argued that mobile devices are particularly suited to supporting social contacts and collaborative learning - claims that have obvious relevance for language learning. A review of publications reporting mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) was undertaken to discover how far mobile devices are being used to support social contact and collaborative learning. In particular, we were interested in speaking and listening practice and in the possibilities for both synchronous and asynchronous interaction in the context of online and distance learning. We reflect on how mobile language learning has developed to date and suggest directions for the future. Keywords: MALL, m-learning, collaboration, distance learning, independent learning 1.1 What is mobile learning? Mobile learning is undergoing rapid evolution. Early generations of mobile learning projects tended to propose formally-designed activities, carefully crafted by educators and technologists, and using emerging technologies that were not yet widely accessible or well understood. Current, widespread ownership of mobile and wireless devices means that learners are increasingly in a position to take the lead and engage in activities motivated by their personal needs and circumstances of use, including those arising from greater mobility and travel (Kukulska-Hulme, Traxler & Pettit, 2007; Pettit & 1. In this paper, the term ‘interactive’ and its derivatives refer to human-human interaction. 2. Distance and blended learning models may include an online component. 3. The Open University, UK offers synchronous online language learning tutorials via its own audiographics conferencing system, Lyceum. An Overview of Mobile Assisted Language Learning 273 Kukulska-Hulme, 2007). Whilst, in the past, mobile learning has often been defined in terms of its use of mobile technologies, more recent thinking has foregrounded the mobility of the learner (Sharples, 2006). Often, the informal aspects of m-learning are also emphasised (e.g. Masahita, 2003, Fallahkhair et al., 2007). While it could be argued that m-learning involves the use of any portable learning material, so includes books, audio-cassettes, audio-CDs, and portable radios and DVD players, for example, m-learning usually concentrates on the most recent technologies. Trifanova et al. (2004:3) define mobile devices as “...any device that is small, autonomous and unobtrusive enough to accompany us in every moment”. Typically, m-learning is identified both by being available “anywhere, anytime” (Geddes, 2004) and by the tools used: mobile learning can perhaps be defined as “any educational provision where the sole or dominant technologies are handheld or palmtop devices” (Traxler, 2005), although in reality it is more usually confined to being one aspect of the provision. For our purposes, then, ‘mobile learning’ refers to learning mediated via handheld devices and potentially available anytime, anywhere. Such learning may be formal or informal. 2 Mobile Assisted Language Learning: an overview of the field As access to wireless networks expands and ownership of devices that can communicate with such networks increases, the use of mobile devices to support language learning becomes ever more common. MALL differs from computer-assisted language learning in its use of personal, portable devices that enable new ways of learning, emphasizing continuity or spontaneity of access and interaction across different contexts of use. As has been pointed out by Laurillard (2007: 165), “a typical m-learning activity could build in more opportunities for digitally-facilitated site-specific activities, and for ownership and control over what the learners do”. In general, MALL would be expected to use technologies such as mobile phones, MP3/MP4 players, PDAs and palmtop computers. An investigation of the MALL literature reveals that it is, indeed, these devices that research in the field has tended to employ. For the purposes of the current paper, a survey was carried out of MALL-related literature published in major, peerreviewed, CALL-related journals (such articles were found in ReCALL, Computer Assisted Language Learning, JALT-CALL and System). The Academic Search Complete database and Google Scholar were also queried to search for literature in this field, whether this was published in the area of CALL or in more general e-learning journals. Furthermore, several relevant papers presented at mobile learning conferences are included. While the overview presented here is not – and, because of the rapid rate of publication of MALL-related articles cannot be – comprehensive, it identifies current trends in the use of mobile devices to support language learning. Mobile technologies clearly offer numerous practical uses in language learning. In many cases, they are readily available. In Japan, for instance, cell phone ownership has been reported to be nearly universal amongst college-aged individuals (Dias, 2002, Spring; Thornton and Houser, 2005). In a recent study of students in higher education in the United States (Kvavik, 2005), 82% owned cell phones. In the same study, however, less than 12% owned PDAs. Even in cases where they must be acquired, mobile technologies are typically less expensive than standard equipment, such as PCs. The portability of mobile media is another benefit. They can be just as easily utilized outside of the classroom as they can in it; learners can study or ractice anageable chunks of information in any place on their own time, thereby taking advantage of their convenience. Ultimately, what these benefits indicate is the potential MALL has in expanding social inclusion in language learning. Notwithstanding its benefits, MALL also poses related challenges. For instance, inherent in the portability of mobile media are reduced screen sizes, limited audiovisual quality, virtual keyboarding and one-finger data entry, and limited power. Further, their availability can be limited. While cell phone ownership may be almost universal for college-aged individuals, this is not true for other populations or media. The costs to educational institutions of purchasing them en masse could be staggering. Nevertheless, Gilgen (2004) has demonstrated the possibilities of developing mobile labs for schools with limited funding. Other potential drawbacks include limited nonverbal communications, limited message lengths, a lack of cultural context, and potentially limited social interaction. While mobile technologies are advancing, their output is quickly moving from verbal to visual, a clear disadvantage for language learning (Colpaert, 2004). Connection problems are also a concern: web-based language learners might choose to limit their online connection times, or they may not have access at all. Still, as a result of this issue, Trifanova, Knapp, Ronchetti, and Gamper (2004) are developing a program which allows learners of web-based German and Italian courses to hoard online content—a process similar to planned caching—so that it can be used during periods of disconnection. This paper is intended to provide a brief introduction to a wide variety of emerging Web 2.0 and mobile technologies that can be used to great effect in foreign and second language teaching. Specifically, the unique potential and anticipated growth of mobile technologies for language production and consumption are discussed as an ideal opportunity to increase the authenticity, engagement and efficiency, and overall effectiveness of language learning within and beyond the classroom. A number of representative mobile Web 2.0 technologies will be examined and their applications to language pedagogy will be elucidated in conjunction with relevant paradigms of second language acquisition theory and instructional praxis. Implications for future innovation and opportunities for additional research will be discussed. As mobile technology develops, it affords second or foreign language learners and teachers ever greater opportunity to practice the target language “anywhere and anytime (Geddes, 2004).” Moreover, with less expensive devices, it is becoming more and more common to use technology in learning and teaching contexts. With its portability, mobile technology expands learning and teaching opportunities for second and foreign language learners and teachers. Moreover, with user created content, which enhances users’ participation, Web 2.0 technology provides new kinds of learning and teaching with technology in second and foreign language instruction. In addition, because the basic concept of Web 2.0 is sharing information and collaboration (see the definition in the next section), it makes it easier for learners to connect not only to other learners, but also to native speakers of the target language around the world. Most of all, the use of these technologies addresses many of the major challenges of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), such as comprehensible input or “i+1” (Krashen, 1985), the interaction hypothesis (Long, 1983, 1996), corrective/facilitative feedback (Gass, 1997; Long, Inagaki, & Ortega, 1998), and learner autonomy (Benson, 2001). It is both timely and appropriate to investigate how these technologies can be implemented in foreign language instruction. Even though empirical research using these technologies is still scarce, it is worthwhile to see what opportunities are available and make suggestions for future use and research. Thus, this paper intends to outline theoretical and praxiological foundations in MALL and CALL and suggest pedagogical templates for the use of Web 2.0 and mobile devices in foreign language instruction. Specifically, this paper intends to provide a basic framework for how Web 2.0 technology can be used in second or foreign language learning and teaching with mobile devices, and illustrate sample activities of MALL as they apply to pedagogical paradigms of second language acquisition. This paper concludes with suggestions for future research or future use, pedagogical benefits and limitations.